Types of decisions
1. Give examples of decisions made at every level of equipment leasingcompany.
2. Explain the factors that need to be taken into account when makingdecisions.
3. Analyze the arguments for and against the use of decisiontrees.
4. Evaluate the use of accounting ratios when making strategicdecisions.
paste your question here…
CASE STUDY 4
| Date posted | 12/12/14 |
| Due date | 12/15/14 by 12:00 PM EST |
| Name | Charlotte Agyemang |
Types of decisions
Please read the case study carefully and answer the questions below
A business continually makes decisions at all levels. Think of a retailer such as Next. To keep the brand’s high profile position, its managers have to make many decisions. Each major strategic decision leads to tactical decisions, which break down into operational decisions.
Decisions are broadly taken at three levels:
- Strategic decisions are big choices of identity and
Who are we? Where are we heading? These decisions are often complex and multi- dimensional. They may involve large sums of money, have a long-term impact and are usually taken by senior management.
- Tactical decisions are about how to manage performance to achieve the
What resources are needed? What is the timescale? These decisions are distinctive but within clearer boundaries. They may involve significant resources, have medium-term implications and may be taken by senior or middle managers.
- Operational decisions are more routine and follow known
How many? To what specification? These decisions involve more limited resources, have a shorter-term application and can be taken by middle or first line managers.
| Strategic Decisions | Should it open dedicated sportswear stores?Should range include surf wear? |
| Tactical Decisions | Which surf wear products should it stock? How will the new range be promoted? |
| Operational Decisions | Where in the stores would the surf wear be displayed?Are extra Saturday staff needed? |
All decisions depend on information. The key is to get the right information to the right people at the right time. For example, management accountants at Shell, the global oil and gas company, have been improving the way the company deals with the strategic and operational data about its global energy projects to improve strategic planning.
The company brought together data from 1,200 projects and opportunities across 40 countries into a single system. Bringing the information together was a complex task due to the size of the company’s operations. However, the system has helped to define strategies and provide greater insight and detail to the Executive Committee and Board.
This has given greater clarity on the business’ current and potential performance and highlighted where the company should allocate resources. To date, the system has helped Shell to increase net present value by over 15%.
How are decisions made?
Management accountants use their skills alongside hard information to support decision making. Through intelligent analysis of information, they can generate alternative solutions and match these to the larger strategy. Each alternative can then be evaluated for its contribution towards objectives, taking into account:
- the timescale: money received in the future being worth less than money received today
- the risk: factoring in the probability of under- or over performance (also called negative or positive variance).
Once a decision is made and implemented it needs careful monitoring to ensure it keeps on track and any problems are detected early. The Electricity Supply Board (ESB) in Ireland faced the challenge of reducing its costs from €250m to €200m over five years.
A team including management accountants was formed to break down costs and identify waste. The team discovered that ESB was carrying the costs of electrical faults caused by external building and construction companies. Meanwhile the ESB technicians were over-burdened with paperwork. The team simplified and centralized this within a designated administration team. This meant the technical staff had more time to give a faster, flexible response to faults and to diagnose their causes. Major savings followed as faults plummeted by 75% and cost efficiency at the company’s call Centre significantly improved.
Some operational decisions can be made mainly from experience and based on an assessment of circumstances. More complex decisions need a systematic and structured approach. This is where decision-making models help.
Decision trees
Most business problems may potentially have more than one solution. Each choice can lead to varying outcomes, some more likely than others. To illustrate this, consider the decision faced by Prospect plc, a (fictitious) property development business. The company owns a town Centre building site. This could be sold now for an estimated
£1.6m. Alternatively the site could be developed with shops and a restaurant at a cost of
£1.5m. The property could then be sold for £4m – provided that a bypass proposal is rejected by the local council. The odds of the bypass being rejected are judged at about 75:25 due to environmental objections. If, however, the bypass were to be built, much tourist trade would be lost and the value of the development would only be £2m. Which choice should Prospect plc make? A decision tree is a useful tool when analyzing choices of this kind. A decision tree is an outcome and probability map of the scenario.
|
Build shops and Restaurant (£1.5m)
Chance node
Bypass rejected £4.0m
Bypass approved £2.0m
Sell site undeveloped
£1.6m
There are three possible outcomes to this scenario, each of which can be given a financial value.
| Outcome | Probability | Estimated Value | |||||||
| Outcome 1 – the site is | The development value is | A 75% chance of receiving | |||||||
| developed and the bypass | £4m. However, there is only | £4m is ‘worth’ £4m X 0.75= | |||||||
| is rejected | a | 75% | chance | of | this | £3m | |||
| occurring. | |||||||||
| Outcome 2 – the site is developed and the bypass goes ahead | There is a 25% chance of receiving only £2m | If the bypass goes ahead it is ‘worth’ £2m X 0.25=£0.5m | |||||||
| Outcome 3 – the site is sold undeveloped | Undeveloped, worth £1.6m | the | site | is | |||||
To calculate the possible yield of developing the site, the values of outcomes 1 and 2 are combined. The cost of development is then subtracted: £3m + £0.5m – £1.5m = £2m
This compares to the value of selling the undeveloped site at only £1.6m. On this basis, depending on its attitude to risk and the likely timescales, the company is likely to build the shops and restaurant.
Decision trees encourage managers to look at a range of options rather than relying on ‘gut feeling’. However, they are only as accurate as the data on which they are based. This data is usually based on estimates. They do also run the risk of over- simplifying a problem particularly where human or other external factors are involved. Other analysis tools can supplement the decision making process.
Ratio analysis
Businesses generate a huge amount of data. Management accountants can use a number of the company’s key accounting statements to extract greater meaning from this information.
The income statement sets out the total sales revenue and subtracts the costs of generating that revenue to give operating profit. This is the surplus earned by the normal operations of the company and tells us most about underlying business performance.
To continue to use the earlier illustrative example, Prospect plc is expanding rapidly as it builds a commercial property portfolio consisting mainly of shops and offices. The company receives rents and also benefits from any profits when it sells property and sites.
Prospect plc – Summarized income statement for year ending 31 March 2012 (against previous year for comparison)
| £m 2012 | £m 2011 | ||
| Sales Revenue | 120 | 80 | From products/ services sold |
| (less) Expenses | 105 | 60 | E.g. costs,overheads |
| (equals) Operating Profit | 15 | 20 | |
The balance sheet (or statement of financial position) shows the wealth of a company at a particular date. It lists the company’s assets (what it owns) followed by its liabilities (what it owes) – the difference being the net assets. Assets may be current, such as cash, or fixed, such as property or equipment. This value represents the shareholders’ equity – the value in the company that the shareholders actually own.
Prospect plc – Balance sheet/statement of financial position as at 31 March 2012
| £m 2012 | £m 2011 | ||
| Fixed (non- current) assets | 135 | 80 | |
| Current assets | 75 | 45 | |
| Current liabilities | 60 | 25 | E.g. short term loan, suppliers’ bills |
| Net current assets (or working capital) | 15 | 20 | Current assets less current liabilities |
| Total assets | 150 | 100 | |
| (current plus fixed) | |||
| less current | |||
| liabilities | |||
| Non-current liabilities | 70 | 30 | E.g. mortgages, pension fund |
| Net assets | 80 | 70 | (Total assets – |
| current liabilities) | |||
| less non-current | |||
| liabilities | |||
| Total shareholders’ equity | 80 | 70 | |
This looks as if Prospect plc has expanded very fast indeed – but how strong is its performance? Accounting ratios allow different pieces of financial data to be compared. Analyzing some key ratios helps to explore behind the figures and offer strong clues for the business to steer towards its objectives (previous year data in brackets):
Return on Capital Employed (ROCE)
This is a measure of profitability. ROCE compares the level of profit made to the value of the capital invested in the business.
= operating profit/(equity + non-current liabilities)
= 15/(80 + 70) = 10% (20%)
Profit margin
Another profitability ratio, profit margin, identifies what percentage of the revenue remains as profits after all costs have been paid.
= operating profit/sales
= 15/120 = 12.5% (25%)
Current ratio
This is a measure of liquidity i.e. the ability of a firm to pay its short term debts.
= current assets/current liabilities
= 75/60 = 1.25 (1.8)
Gearing
The gearing ratio shows how much of a firm’s capital is from long-term loans, which must be paid back regularly with interest.
The more highly geared a firm is, the greater the risk it faces.
= non-current liabilities/(equity + non-current liabilities)
= 70/(80 + 70) x 100 = 46.6% (30.0%)
The chart shows every sign of a firm that has expanded too quickly:
- sales have increased by an impressive 50% in one year
- however, profitability has halved
- Liquidity has weakened while gearing is more risky at nearly 50%.
The result is a danger signal! Management accountants investigate this sort of data in order to alert managers to worrying trends, as well as to possible opportunities.
Questions:
- Give examples of decisions made at every level of equipment leasing
- Explain the factors that need to be taken into account when making
- Analyze the arguments for and against the use of decision
- Evaluate the use of accounting ratios when making strategic
